Health evidence drives rapid improvements in climate and clean air action
Beijing, China
Case study developed in partnership with Energy Foundation China
21.8 M
Beijing population size
6 times
the WHO air quality guideline of 5 μg/m3
(30 μg/m3 annual average PM2.5 concentrations)
$23,310
GDP per capita PPP
11,472 MtC02e
National GHG emissions per capita
Sources of emissions
Transportation
Coal
Biomass Burning
There is no clear leading emissions source in Beijing
Overview
Beijing has achieved remarkable improvement in ambient air quality in the past decade. From 2013 to 2022, the annual average concentrations of major air pollutants decreased significantly: PM2.5 decreased 66.5%; SO2 decreased 88.7%; NO2 decreased 58.9%; and PM10 decreased 50%. As a result, there are now 21.8 million residents in Beijing breathing substantially cleaner air (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Annual population weighted average PM2.5 concentration, 2000 - 2022 | Source: tapdata.org.cn
Beijing’s clean air actions can be divided into three parts. In the 1990s, Beijing suffered from serious air pollution following its rapid economic and social development, with visible difference in air and local people worried about its health impact. In response, in 1998 the Beijing municipal government published the first local government declaration in China on air pollution control. From 1998 to 2011, Beijing established thorough air pollution control legislation and enforcement mechanism and implemented hundreds of concrete measures. Government, especially the environmental sector, played the main role and took primary responsibility in these efforts.
Three phases of Beijing’s air pollution control
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In 1998, Beijing Municipal Government published the first local government declaration in China on air pollution control. From 1998 to 2011, Beijing government established a thorough air pollution control legislation and enforcement mechanism and implemented hundreds of concrete measures, including the closing of high-pollution enterprises, retrofitting and transitioning power plantings, renovating and replacing coal-fired boilers and phasing out heavy-duty diesel/gasoline vehicles, and many more.
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Starting from 2012, evidence from the health sector estimating the number of premature deaths caused by air pollution aroused serious concern among the public and it drove the city to unveil another historic action plan—the Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013–2017—focusing on controlling PM2.5 pollution to protect public health. Stricter PM2.5 limits were applied, residential coal ban was implemented, sophisticated air quality monitoring system is established, and many more science-driven clean air actions were implemented.
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From 2020, Beijing is stepping into a new phase of climate change - air pollution co-management by coordinating efforts of carbon-peak and carbon-neutrality and air pollution control. The health sector continues contributing to by investing in environmental health surveillance and risk assessment. The goal of this phase is to push for stricter and health sensitive limits for air pollutants and refining the design for city development strategy to make it more sensitive for environment and public health.
In 2007, the Beijing government consulted with the health sector to support its strategies to control air pollution, inviting public health researchers to collect and summarize evidence on the health impact of air pollution from different sources. The research group found consistent evidence of NOx’s impact on the respiratory system and suggested that controlling vehicle emissions could be an important measure to reduce the risk of respiratory diseases. This played an important role in strengthening the control of vehicle emissions, including establishing low emission zones, and restricting the use of high emission vehicles and trucks. The 2008 Beijing Olympic further accelerated Beijing’s air pollution control -with the implementation of more intense measures.
Photo Above: A Screenshot of Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau showing health tips based on air pollution level and main pollutants. In the circled area, the text reads: Health Impact: Symptoms in vulnerable population will be aggravated slightly, healthy people can experience irritating symptoms. Suggestions: Children, the elderly, and patients with heart and respiratory diseases should reduce high-intensity outdoor exercise. Source: 环境质量 (beijing.gov.cn)
Beginning in 2012, the frequent heavy PM2.5 pollution episodes roused serious health concerns among the media and public. Driven by public health considerations, Beijing made air quality-related information public in 2013 that includes not only real-time concentrations of six major pollutants and an air quality index, but also real-time health advice based on pollution levels, some of which was targeted for specific groups such as children and people with underlying health conditions. Financial investment also scaled up from 2013, with a nearly six-fold increase in expenditures on air pollution control from 2013 to 2017 (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Financial Investment in Air Pollution Control in Beijing, 2009-2017 (Billion Chinese Yuan) Source: A review of 20 years: Air Pollution Control in Beijing
From 2020 onward, public health considerations have continued to guide the government’s clean air strategy. With the release of the new WHO air quality guidelines in 2021, advocates are calling for more stringent limits for pollutant concentrations. Driven by health research results, more attention is now being directed to the control of ozone and volatile organic compounds (VOC). Advocacy on transitioning from “end-of-pipe” strategies to climate change and air pollution co-management are being made using health research results as evidence. Researchers are also using local air and health data to create a locally-sensitive air quality health index.
Photo Above: Air quality health index press conference hosted by Peking University and Energy Foundation and endorsed by a number of research institutes and NGOs. Researchers are calling for a new air quality standard that is more sensitive to public health
Throughout Beijing’s air pollution control efforts, the public health sector has played a key role in the evolution of its clean air actions through informing government stakeholders and the public about air pollution’s negative impact on health.
Photo Above: Cityscape of Beijing. In the past decade, Beijing has managed to dramatically improve its air quality.
Impact
As a result of significant financial investment and the implementation of hundreds of strict clean air policies, air quality in China has improved dramatically since 2013. Based on reports from the Beijing Ecology and Environment Statement, coal-fired power plants and boilers were eliminated and all gas-fired boilers in the core city area have been renovated or dismantled. Between 2013 to 2022, all urban areas and over 1 million rural households have transitioned their residential heating from coal to electric or gas. A cumulative number of 610,000 electric vehicles have been put on the road, with more than 1.9 million vehicles that either the failed China III emission standards or were deemed too old scrapped; and a total of 2,154 polluting enterprises were closed, and more than 11,000 polluting businesses and enterprises rectified.
Significant health benefits have been seen since clean air actions were instituted. From 2013 to 2017, the estimated number of premature deaths in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region attributable to short-term PM2.5 exposure decreased from 24,700 to 17,500. And from 2018 to 2020, the number of deaths further decreased rom 15,500 to 13,500. The residential coal ban alone is estimated to have averted around a thousand premature deaths annually.
Photo Above: Public electric vehicle charging station in Beijing, where electric vehicle ownership has reached 617,000.
Health highlights
In 2007, the Beijing government invited public health researchers to collect and summarize evidence on the health impact of air pollution from different sources. The research group found consistent evidence of NOx’s impact on the respiratory system and suggested that controlling vehicle emissions could be an important measure to reduce the risk of respiratory diseases. This played an important role in strengthening the control of vehicle emissions, including establishing low emission zones and restricting the use of high emission vehicles and trucks.
Significant health benefits have been seen since clean air actions were instituted. From 2013 to 2017, the estimated number of premature deaths in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region attributable to short-term PM2.5 exposure decreased from 24,700 to 17,500. And from 2018 to 2020, the number of deaths further decreased rom 15,500 to 13,500. The residential coal ban alone is estimated to have averted around a thousand premature deaths annually.
Lessons learned
Beijing established a system of laws and regulations at the national and city level with supporting enforcement and supervision. The system gives clear guidance on the mandatory responsibility of city and district level governments in development and implementation of clean air actions. The identification of accountable parties was another key component that has resulted in the achievement of annual and medium-long term targets.
Beijing provided financial incentives for not only industries but also citizens to change their norms, for instance by provided subsidies to switch from coal to natural gas for residential heating. To supplement these efforts, the city also directed resources to public education to engage individuals and families in behavioral and lifestyle changes that reinforced clean air actions. This made it easier for the public to not only adapt to the change but also lead and advocate for the change.
Beijing established and enhanced its air quality monitoring network and made the data public. The city also published systematic research on emission inventories and source apportionment studies. The open sharing of data and information enabled health impact analysis. Collectively, the city was thus better able to identify key areas of actions to tackle air pollution more effectively.
